Demonstrate an understanding of basic principles and standards involved in organizing information such as classification and controlled vocabulary systems, cataloging systems, metadata schemas or other systems for making information accessible to a particular clientele;
In a society filled with vast amounts of information, it is crucial to implement organizational systems that will help us navigate the informational highway. Organizing information and resources makes it easier for information professionals and users to access information in a chaotic landscape. Access becomes necessary for users who have informational needs that require further investigation and research. Thus, organizational systems store and process data that help users solve problems and complete tasks. The organization of information and resources is important because it creates a set of tools in which users are able to find, access, and use information. These tools consist of organizational systems, that create hierarchies of indexes or databases to facilitate easier retrieval of information. For information professionals, using standards when building information systems helps to unify information in different locations. In the Library and Information Sciences field, classification systems and metadata systems help organize information into categories, subjects or specific fields to help users search for certain types of information not known at first glance. Controlled vocabularies help to standardized content to prevent confusion when cataloging or searching between variants of words for subjects and thesauri. While cataloging systems use a combination of these types of organizational systems to create access points to facilitate retrieval from multiple points of access. These organizational systems are beneficial because information professionals and users are able to conduct accurate and relevant search inquiries when information is organized and indexed following consistent principles and standards across multiple platforms. As an information professional, it is important to look at the basic principles and standards associated with organizing information because organizational systems are an important component in making information accessible. Cataloging, classification, controlled vocabularies, and metadata schemas are important organizational systems to discuss further because it plays an important role in the day to day activities of many information professionals.
Cataloging
Cataloging systems are important tools for information professionals because they are one of the first resources consulted when locating information and materials. The purpose of the catalog is to provide information about an institution’s holdings and collections. Descriptions of items and groups, availability, and location information are some of the information that a catalog provides. Therefore, it is important to understand the process of cataloging to know how information is organized to facilitate relevant retrieval. Cataloging is the process of creating a record to describe an item using widely practiced standards and rules, such as ISBD, AACR2 and MARC 21. Cataloging creates records to organize a collection of items and allows people to find these records based on the description information about an item.
Catalogs have come in different formats, such as books, card catalogs, microform or in OPAC’s, but they share the same function in organizing information (Chan, 2007 p. 22) Today, OPAC’s are the dominate cataloging systems used by many institutions. Structurally they are comprised of two types of records that are indexed and linked to one another to create records that are retrievable and consistent. There is the bibliographic record that contains information about items within a collection and the authority record, that standardizes headings. Bibliographic records consist of resource description, subject analysis, and classification (Chan, 2007 p.26). Resource description involves recording the information about an item using standards such as ISBD for punctuation and AACR2 for the eight areas of description (Goetting, 2013). Subject analysis involves looking for appropriate subject headings for items from an authorized list (Chan, 2007 p 27 ). This allows similar materials to be group together for faster access and browsing (Goetting, 2013). Classification requires looking at the primary topics and subjects based on subject analysis and using a classification scheme to place materials into logical groupings (Chan, 2007 p 27 ). This information is accessible through access points and headings. An access point is any name, term or word related to the item that is chosen for a bibliographical record that allows it to be searchable in a catalog. Many access points consist of authors, co-authors, illustrators, editors or anyone involved in the formation and contribution of the item. Access points can also consist of variant titles and other title information on or known about the item. Access points allow users to search for any information that they know about an item. Access points allow a user to search for items with little information known. There are also subject access points that allow a user to search by subject.
Authority records that standardize author names, and subjects under a uniform heading to allow access through multiple access points. These headings also provide redirections through cross-references when search terms are entered into the catalog. The value of authority control is that it standardizes names and headings to provide consistency among various catalogs. It also allows users to search using any words or names they want with the system redirecting them to the authority controlled name or heading. It prevents users from conducting multiple searches when a cross-reference or related materials access point is available. It also provides users with information about other items that related to their search inquiry (Chan, 2007p. 27-28).
Classification
Although cataloging and classification are linked together in use, there are slight differences in function. The difference between classification and cataloging is that cataloging focuses on organizing and assigning descriptions to allow faster retrieval of a record, while classification involves assigning relationships among items based on the needs of the collection (Chan, 2007 p. 309). Items are grouped into classes and subclasses in a hierarchical process that also groups items from general to specific (Chan, 2007 p. 311). These relationships from general to specific help to organize topics in a field or disciple to help users find resources based in the classification assigned. Classification is also the process of assigning identification numbers and/or letters to items so that they can be found in a particular location for a collection. The locations of an item not only include the physical location of an item on a shelf or collection but includes the conceptual location of a group of similar items. It often uses classification schemes, such as the Dewy Decimal System, Library of Congress and Sears List of Subject Headings, to classify and assign a number based on which schedules, classes or groups items fall into. These mappings of knowledge are important for information professionals because it creates a reliable system to help direct users where they can find information.
Controlled Vocabularies
Controlled vocabularies are also another organizational system used to help control terminology. Users searching in their natural language will come across synonyms for subjects and concepts, that will lead to limited and scattered records. Controlled vocabularies are important because they allow users to search under predefined terms that will retrieve all records that are associated with the term chosen. Controlled vocabularies also serve as access points, to help retrieve and link related records. Subject heading lists and thesauri are two types of controlled vocabulary lists that help control the representation of items through standardized lists. Subject heading lists, such as the Library of Congress Subject Headings, specify subject headings for every item cataloged into a browsable and searchable list. Within their subject headings, there are also subdivisions that make the subject more specific using dashes as indicators. This includes a topical, physical, geographical or chronological indicator (“SUBJECT SUBDIVISION”). On the other hand, thesauri help to direct users to the correct headings based on the terms a searcher inputs. Thesauri are useful for users unfamiliar with the correct terminology in a field of study. A thesauri search will help users use the correct vocabulary to produce more relevant results. Controlled vocabularies are important because only one vocabulary style needs to be learned in various locations and it helps researchers choose terms appropriate for their search query.
Metadata Schemas
Metadata Schemas are the skeleton structures that hold, arrange, transfer and interpret data. There are several metadata schemas available for different types of informational resources. MARC 21 encodes the information about a bibliographic record and is a transmission standard (“MARC standards”). Computers can’t read the same way humans do, so a standard was created to make the bibliographic record readable for the computer so that the information is then transmitted to us in a format we can see and understand. MARC 21 uses numbered fields 01X-09X that contain standard numbers, classification numbers, codes, and other data elements relating to the record (Library of Congress). It also contains subfields and delimiters along with typographical conventions that act as “signposts” to identify areas about the data (Library of Congress). MARC 21 is an importance schema for libraries because it is a widely used schema, that is incorporated in automation systems that libraries use. Since it is widely used among many libraries, it ensures consistency and minimizes duplication since bibliographic records are shared.
While MARC 21 is essential for most catalogs, it is costly and requires a lot more bibliographical details. Dublin Core is another metadata schema designed to describe web resources, that don’t need the same level of bibliographical treatment as some catalog items do (Chan, 2007 p. 116-117). Dublin Core contains a set of fifteen elements known as Simple Dublin Core (unqualified). It also expands into an additional three elements with a group of qualifiers for more in-depth detail to fill other information needs called Qualified Dublin Core (Dublin Core). There is element refinement which narrows the meaning of the element and encoding schema which identifies other schemas being used, such as, controlled vocabularies (Chan, 2007 p.120). Dublin core is useful and flexible enough for non-catalogers to catalog data and interpret the information inside its schema, which makes it a great schema for smaller collections and smaller institutions.
Other schemas are also important for institutions with specific informational needs. Encoded Archival Description (EAD) is an XML metadata schema designed for institutions with archival materials. It is designed to describe collections and multiple -level inventories (Encoded Archival Description). It is a set of 146 elements used to describe and encode finding aids, which are an archives access tool. Therefore, EAD is a hierarchical representation of a finding aid that is machine readable (Lindberg, 2014). Since finding aids are more narrative, schemas such as MARC 21 or Dublin Core do not provide enough detail needed for these types of structures to be shared on the web. EAD uses XML to create customizable hierarchies that hold data in elements to create what is known as an “instance. ”An instance contains an EAD header, which provides information about the encoded file and archdesc which is information about an archival collection. EAD can also be mapped to other content standards such as MARC 21 and Dublin Core, making it a sharable and compatible schema among different types of institutions (Lindberg, 2014). For information professionals and users, shareable files mean access to more resources outside of their local institutions.
Competency Development:
In my MLIS program at San Jose State University, specific courses introduced me to the many organizational systems that information professionals use. In LIBR 202, Information Retrieval, I learned about the structure of databases and indexes to help me learn how to evaluate systems. I also was introduced to some of the standards that information professionals work with, such as, MARC, LC Classification, Dublin Core, and NISO 39.19. Being introduced to the structure of databases and standards early on in the program prepared me for the in-depth courses about different organizational systems. In LIBR 248, Beginning Cataloging and Classification, we looked at basic cataloging standards, procedures, and tools to learn how to classify and catalog items. In this course, we looked closely at MARC 21 and AACR2 to understand how cataloging decisions are made based on these standards and how they affect users. Many of the assignments asked us to catalog items so that we could learn how to use and apply these standards when cataloging different types of items. In a series of seminars in Archives and Records Management, I learned about important procedures and standards within the archive and records management field. In LIBR 284, Digitization and Digital Preservation, we looked at the process of digitalization and how we can use organizational systems to describe, store and retrieve digital items. Digital items need a different approach when organizing them for access and retrieval because there are qualities about these types of items that are important to understand, such as, resolution, file size, and original context. I also learned about the application of metadata standards for digitalized items and how I can apply them for different types of digitalization projects. In LIBR 284, Managing Photographic Collections, I also looked at how to organize photographic collections in both print and digital formats. For collections that rely heavily on description, such as photographs, to describe its content, I learned how metadata and controlled vocabularies play an important role in making non-text items accessible. In LIBR 284, EAD, I learned about Encoded Archival Description, and how this metadata structure supports multiple level description of collections, not just single items. I learned how to use the basic principles and standards of Encoded Archival description to turn a written finding aid into an accessible web resource using XML and stylesheets. This was important because I learned how institutions can share collection information over the web. These seminars are important to my development as an information professional because it expands my knowledge in other areas beyond the library setting and allows me to become a well-rounded information professional. All of these courses allowed me to practice implementing organizational systems in varying tasks and scenarios so that I learn how to make different types of resources accessible.
Evidence 1: Libr 248, Cataloging Exercises
In Libr 248, Beginning Cataloging, I was given a series of exercises asking me to catalog different types of items such as books, sound recordings and dvds. For example, Exercise # 10-11 dealt with books, while exercise # 12 dealt with sound recordings and dvds. In these exercises, I also had the opportunity to practices using two different types of cataloging with different formats. I was able to practice cataloging books and media doing original (Exercise #11 Practice 3-4) and copy-cataloging (Exercise #10 Practice 1-2 ). Learning how to copy catalog was a great way for me to learn how to look at MARC records from a different perspective, that has become useful when looking at records for quick information about an item. Copy cataloging is also essential to learn because it minimizes cataloging work because it allows the cataloger to make this resource available faster while freeing more time to focus on items that need original cataloging. Although copy-cataloging is an important part of cataloging work, learning how to do original cataloging was also important because I learned how to catalog from scratch. This allowed me to really look at the resource I was cataloging and make decisions about how to describe the item so that it is useful for users. This allowed me to apply my knowledge of MARC 21 and the Anglo-American Cataloguing Rules 2 (AACR2) as I completed these exercises. I learned where to consult resources, such as the Library of Congress, to look for more detailed information about MARC 21 (http://www.loc.gov/marc/bibliographic/) when I was not sure about my tags. I was also introduced to other tools, such as Catalogers Desktop (http://www.loc.gov/cds/desktop/), to look up AACR2 to help me understand the rules for describing items. This resource is also useful because it also includes information about RDA, which is a newer description standard being used. These resources are important to know about because they are kept updated with the latest information about cataloging. In order to stay consistent in various locations, it is important that I know about significant changes and updates if I plan on continuing to learn more about cataloging procedures. Working in a library setting where I look at catalog records every day to help patrons with questions, I am able to understand how to look at MARC records for quick information about items. As I continue to expose myself to MARC records, I will continue to learn how to read and use these records to provide information to the patrons I help. Learning how to catalog has also given me a deeper understanding, about cataloging systems and their role in providing access through shared descriptions.
Evidence 2: Libr 284, Digitization Project Plan and ContentDM Collection
In LIBR 284, Digitization and Digital Preservation, I was part of a digitization project, that required a group and me to digitize personal items, such as, photographs, postcards, drawings, and letters. We worked together to create a Digitalization project plan to outline our scanning, image and metadata requirements. Once we digitalized our items, using best practice guidelines that we learned about and agreed to use, we uploaded our content to our CONTENT dm database. In order to provide context to our digitized items and to make our images accessible from the CONTENT dm database, we needed to add descriptive data to enrich our items. In our plan, we discuss in-depth the reasoning behind our metadata decisions (pgs.13-18). Adding descriptive metadata was important because we wanted researchers to have enough information to understand, and analysis our content. We applied the Dublin Core Metadata Initiative (DCMI) standards and used 20 fields for our database. For our records, we created descriptive, administrative and structural metadata to provide information about our collection. We used metadata fields, such as Title, Subject, Description, Creator, Publisher Original, Contributors, Type, Format, Identifier, and Language to provide context to our digitalized items. We also created fields to describe our digitized files because there are qualities about the digitalized version that do not exist with the original but would be of interest for researchers. Metadata about digitalization specifications is useful to answer some questions for researchers about image quality. For example, is this record the best representation of the original, or will the original need to be consulted for a clearer representation? In this project, I learned how to use metadata standards, such as Dublin Core, to describe digitized items. The flexibility of this metadata standard made it an ideal candidate to use for our small digitized collection. I also had the opportunity to learn and use other controlled vocabularies. For example, we used the thesaurus for Graphic Materials (TGM) for our subject field because it suited our collection of images the best. The TGM is for visual materials, so this controlled vocabulary is suited best for photographs. It is important to be acquainted with different types of controlled vocabularies because collection needs will vary. This project allowed me to work with Dublin Core and various controlled vocabularies so that I learn how to use appropriate standards for different materials and situations. Working with different types of materials is important because it allows me to become familiarized with the best way of making them accessible through organizational systems.
Evidence 3: Libr 284, EAD Finding Aid Final
In Libr 284, EAD, I learned about Encoded Archival description and it’s significance as a metadata standard for archival materials. I learned how to use Encoded Archival Description through assignments that allowed me to encode finding aids. My final assignment in the course required me to encode a finding aid for publication online, using my cumulative knowledge of EAD. This assignment required that I use the EAD Tag Library (http://www.loc.gov/ead/tglib/) to make sure that I was using the appropriate EAD tags for the content I was working with. Using resources like the tag library ensures that my code is correct and minimizes “crosswalk” and “translation” issues when published and shared. This assignment also required that I map some EAD elements to MARC 21 fields so that elements from my finding aid can be shared with MARC records. I used the “relatedencoding” and “encodinganalog” attributes to let my EAD instance know what and where to crosswalk to MARC 21. This “crosswalk” is important because it allows sharing between institutions with other information structures while creating consistent records. As an information professional, sharing resources with other institutions is critical because it allows items from other locations to be accessible. Archival materials are not always easily accessible, so it is important to provide information about items so that researchers have a better chance of finding information that they need. Cross-walking with EAD to MARC 21 is one way to ensure that information in finding aids are accessible with other systems. Another element in this assignment, that was important was the use of OAC Best Practice Guidelines for EAD in my EAD finding Aid. To allow my finding aid to be shared with the Online Archive of California, I learned how to use their standards so that my finding aid fit their guidelines. When sharing resources, like finding aids, with a consortium it is necessary for them to develop standards so that finding aids appear and function consistently to facilitate access. Finally, in order to make my finding aid presentable on the web, I learned how to incorporate stylesheets, so that my finding aid is available online in a format that users will understand. All these elements in my EAD finding aid, have allowed me to use metadata schemes in different ways to make my information accessible in various locations. As I learn more about EAD in the future, my knowledge about how to encode and share finding aids will help me develop the critical skills I need to make sure that information about archival materials is accessible online.
Conclusion:
Organizational systems play a vital role in making materials and resources accessible to patrons. Informational professionals use these systems to present information to users in formats that allow for easier retrieval. The development of OPAC’s and metadata schemes have improved the way users access materials because it has allowed improved retrieval and access. Items that were once inaccessible and only available onsite are now available for preview to patrons online. Technology plays an important role in the way information professionals organize information because it creates new types of resources and modes of access.
Technology has played a vital role in my education in Library and Information Sciences, allowing me to access educational resources and tools to supplement my learning environment. It has also introduced me to the necessary tools and systems that information professionals use while allowing me to learn and use them in real-world projects. I have learned a lot about the way information is organized and how this impacts accessibility. Learning about cataloging systems and MARC 21, improves the way I look at cataloging records and how I search for materials on behalf of patrons. Understanding and using classification and controlled vocabulary systems such as Library of Congress Subject headings also improves the way I navigate and search for items. When keywords are not enough, subject headings provide consistent and precise search results. Metadata schemes have also shown me the importance of following standards so that materials can be shared across multiple platforms and institutions. As a developing information professional, understanding the function and structure of catalog systems, classification, controlled vocabularies and metadata schemes will improve the way I help patrons in my day to day activities working in a public library.
Resources:
Chan, L., & Hodges, T. (2007). Cataloging and classification: An introduction (3rd ed.). Lanham, Md.: Scarecrow Press.
Dublin Core. (n.d.). Retrieved September 30, 2015, from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dublin_Core
Encoded Archival Description. (n.d.). Retrieved September 30, 2015, from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ Encoded_Archival_Description
Library of Congress. (n.d.). 01X-09X – Numbers and Codes-General Information. Retrieved September 30, 2015, from http://www.loc.gov/marc/bibliographic/bd01x09x.html
Goetting, D. (2013, February 1). Lesson 2 Principles of Cataloging: An Overview. Lecture presented in San Jose State iSchool. PDF Lecture
Library of Congress. (n.d.). WHAT IS A MARC RECORD, AND WHY IS IT IMPORTANT? Retrieved September 30, 2015, from http://www.loc.gov/marc/umb/um01to06.html
Lindberg, L. (2014, February 1). Encoded Archival Description (EAD): Archival metadata. Lecture presented in San Jose State Blackboard Collaborate.
MARC standards. (n.d.). Retrieved September 30, 2015, from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MARC_standards
SUBJECT SUBDIVISION. (n.d.). Retrieved September 30, 2015, from http://lili.org/forlibs/ce/able/course6/09subjectsubdivisions.htm
Assignments
LIBR_248_Catalog_exercise_10_practice_1
LIBR_248_Catalog_exercise_10_practice_2
LIBR_248_Catalog_exercise_11_practice_3
LIBR_248_Catalog_exercise_11_practice_4
LIBR_248_Catalog_exercise_12_practice_5
LIBR_248_Catalog_exercise_12_practice_6
LIBR_284_Digitization-_Project_Plan
LIBR 284, CONTENT dm Collection